Our primary aim was to examine differences between using a SD or a SCC as the main source of nutrition information on the dietary habits and practices of NCAA Division I baseball players. The secondary aim was to assess how baseball sport position may influence dietary habits and practices.
Prior research, including the results of the present study, has shown that access to a registered dietitian or SD can help NCAA athletes increase adherence to performance nutrition principals [20, 21]. However, time constraints can prevent SDs from providing proper nutrition education to all athletes under their purview, and many NCAA institutions have no SD available due to financial limitations. At present, 88 full-time SDs are employed at 61 schools in major college conferences in the United States – many of whom work as the sole SD, which may require them to be responsible for >600 student athletes [22]. Due to limited SD access and availability, it is not uncommon for student-athletes to seek out SCCs for nutrition guidance. Previous publications have reported that 16.2 to 28% of college athletes will use SCCs as their primary source of nutrition information [10,11,12, 23]. Additionally, SCCs will interact with athletes multiple times during a week, providing opportunities to help reinforce best performance nutrition practices. Therefore, it is desirable for SCCs to have an adequate understanding of evidence-based nutrition practices for optimizing sports performance.
Two studies have attempted to assess the nutrition knowledge level of SCCs [12, 24]. Torres-McGhee et al. evaluated sports nutrition knowledge of 71 SCCs using 20 multiple choice questions answered via a voluntary survey [12]. Using a cutoff of 75% to indicate “adequate nutrition knowledge”, 83.1% of respondents met or exceeded these criteria while 16.9% showed inadequate knowledge. Scores were higher in questions regarding supplements and performance (90.4%), weight management and eating disorders (80.3%), and hydration (79.4%). Knowledge of micronutrients and macronutrients scored the lowest (76.1%). Smith-Rockwell et al. assessed 10 SCCs via a voluntary 20-question survey (29). Participants correctly responded 80% of the time. Due to the limited sample sizes, the brief nature of the questionnaires, and the potential for volunteer bias, it is difficult to generalize these results. However, they preliminarily suggest that SCCs may possess adequate knowledge of general sports nutrition. Further, the results of the current study may help indicate areas in which it can be advantageous for SCCs to increase their performance nutrition knowledge. Nutrient timing, food quality, supplement use, and alcohol consumption have been identified as potential areas of interest when educating student-athletes on best performance nutrition practices.
Timing of nutrient intake is an essential component to support training, reduce fatigue, optimize recovery, and assist in maintaining body composition [25]. Baseball players should be advised to employ eating strategies that provide adequate pre-, post-, and during- workout nutrition. In the current study, baseball players, who used SCCs as their primary nutrition information source, experienced favorable compliance to post-workout recommendations. In fact, they were more likely to consume food within a 1-h window after training, or competition (95%). However, only 67% indicated it was easy for them to eat 1–2 h pre-exercise, 38% consistently ate pre-exercise breakfast, and 26% were provided with post-workout nutrition options. Providing post-workout dietary options may not be financially or logistically feasible for some. Since compliance to post-workout food consumption within 1 h of training is already high, SCCs might consider verbal reminders as well as posting signage in regard to proper post-workout nutrition guidelines in order to encourage greater athlete adherence to appropriate dietary intake.
Inappropriate fueling strategies leading to hunger or dehydration is another area of concern that SCCs can help to address. Within the SCC group, 66% of baseball athletes reported experiencing an episode of hunger during training, practice, or competition compared to 72% in the SD group. Within the SCC group 22% reported having suffered negative effects due to dehydration while the SD group reported 18%. Although the frequency of hunger episodes or dehydration was not obtained, experiencing either during exercise is indicative of poor fueling. A consistent lack of appropriate dietary planning can lead to chronic performance decreases, muscle protein catabolism, and impaired recovery status [25]. Athletes should be encouraged to follow recommendations to consume a pre-exercise meal [25] and to replace lost bodily fluids [25, 26].
Convenience and low cost are primary contributors that drive fast food consumption among college students [27, 28]. Data from our study showed that SCC group ate fast food with greater frequency throughout a 7-day week than the SD group. On the upper end of consumption, the SCC group saw 17% of athletes consuming 5 to 8 fast food meals in a week compared to 3% in the SD group. Additionally, reports of fast food being provided prior to a practice or competition while on team trips were high for both conditions (SCC 70% vs. SD 45.45%). Prior research has indicated that average fast food consumption across male and female collegiate teams to be between 13.69 [20] and 15% (30%), but baseball was not represented. A survey of baseball players (n = 25) reported a high interest in learning about healthier fast-food alternatives [29]. It is likely baseball players would be receptive to this information delivered through a variety of educational methods. The survey also reported baseball players had equally high preferences for receiving nutrition education through group sessions, individual counseling, newsletters, study modules, computer training, and conferences [29]. Modestly higher interest was reported for nutrition education through academic courses or from nutrition graduate students [29]. SCCs could employ any number of these methods to communicate fast food alternatives.
In regard to supplement usage, 42% of baseball players reported taking a supplement (SCC 37% vs. SD 53%). This is an overall lower incidence of supplement use than previously reported in collegiate athletes [10, 30, 31]. When compared to NCAA survey data on the use of dietary supplements among baseball players, we found comparable use of creatine (17% vs. 18.8% NCAA) and lower use of protein (25% vs. 58.9% NCAA) and multivitamins (6% vs. 28.1% NCAA) [32]. Inadvertent ingestion of a supplement containing or contaminated with NCAA impermissible substances can lead to temporary or permanent loss of NCAA eligibility [33]. Since prior research has shown athletes’ knowledge to be low in areas of supplement use [12, 21, 31] and safety [21, 31], SCCs can be a valuable resource on the risks and efficacy of supplements.
Alcohol consumption during periods of heavy training or competition, as commonly seen during the pre- and in- season, may cause dehydration and increase recovery time [25]. The amount and frequency of alcohol ingestion were comparable between the SCC and SD groups. A 2014 NCAA report on substance use trends in NCAA athletes found that 92% reported either never consuming alcohol or doing so ≤2 days per week [32]. A similar rate of 86% was observed in our study. The 2014 NCAA report also found that 49.3% drank during their competitive season – a modestly higher percentage than the 40% observed in the current study. An earlier 2012 NCAA report found 49% of athletes were at risk of binge drinking [34]. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism define binge drinking as “a pattern of drinking that brings blood alcohol concentration levels to 0.08 g/dL… [typically occurring] after 4 drinks for women and 5 drinks for men—in about 2 hours” [35]. The response rate of the baseball athletes in the current study places 52% at risk for binge drinking behaviors.
Differences in dietary habits were noted across sport position groups. Middle infielders found it easier to eat pre-exercise and were more likely to be taking a supplement. Of the middle infielders surveyed, 63% were using a protein supplement. Multivitamins, fish oil, and creatine were also popular supplements for this sport position group. It is possible that middle infielders were attempting to use supplements to support weight gain goals as a higher BMI has been associated with improved offensive measures when examining performance data over multiple decades [14, 36]. Further, a significant relationship has been reported between home runs and BMI with home runs per season and BMI reaching their highest levels in the most recent decade [36].
While the strengths of our study included a large, homogenous sample size of baseball players and a high survey response rate, there remain limitations of note. First, survey data were grouped and analyzed based upon whom the baseball athletes identified as their primary source for individual performance nutrition (sport dietary) planning assistance. Second, as with most survey research, limitations include susceptibility to recall bias of survey questions, under- or over-reporting by survey respondents, and the assumption that respondents are answering questions honestly.. Lastly, there was unequal access to a SD across institutions as only two of the three schools surveyed employed a full-time SD; therefore, it is possible that some of the differences or similarities observed may have been influenced by outreach efforts or general interactions between the SDs and SCCs, athletes, or other sports performance staff members. Further, a team’s funding level may affect an athlete’s use of/or access to resources that may improve performance, such as supplements and food. Teams with better funding may be provided with a more complete array of sports nutrition services.
