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Table 1 Summary of studies exploring the effects of sodium bicarbonate on exercise performance

From: International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: sodium bicarbonate and exercise performance

Study

Participants

Exercise performance test

Sodium bicarbonate dose

Timing of ingestion

Main findings

Afman et al. 2014 [2]

7 well-trained male basketball players

Basketball layups and 15-m sprints in 4 quarters

0.4 g/kg

90 to 20 min before exercise

Made layups: ↔

Sprint time: ↓ in the 4th quarter

Ansdell et al. 2020 [3]

10 male basketball players

Isometric knee extension after each quarter of a basketball game, 15-m sprint, and basketball layups

0.4 g/kg

90 to 60 min before exercise

Made layups: ↔

Sprint time: ↔

MVC: sodium bicarbonate ingestion attenuated the decline in strength

Artioli et al. 2007 [4]

23 judo competitors

3 × SJFT (5-min rest); 4 × modified upper body Wingate test (3-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Number of throws: ↑ in SJFT bout 2 and 3

Mean power: ↑ in Wingate bout 3 and 4

Peak power: ↑ in Wingate bout 4

Aschenbach et al. 2000 [5]

8 college wrestlers

8 × 15-s arm ergometer (20-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 to 60 min before exercise

Peak power: ↔

Total work: ↔

Bird et al. 1995 [6]

12 male distance runners

1500-m run

0.3 g/kg

120 to 60 min before exercise

Running time: ↓

Bishop et al. 2004 [7]

10 female team-sport athletes

5 × 6-s cycle sprints (30-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Total work: ↑

Peak power: ↑ in sprints 3, 4, and 5

Bishop et al. 2005 [8]

7 female team-sport athletes

2 × 36-min “halves” of 18 × 4-s cycle sprints (2-min rest)

0.4 g/kg

90 to 20 min before exercise

Work: ↑ in 7 of 18 second-half sprints

Peak power: ↑ in 8 of 18 second-half sprints

Boegman et al. 2020 [9]

23 male rowers

2000-m rowing

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise, or according to individualized ingestion timing

Rowing time: ↓ with the individualized protocol

Bouissou et al. 1988 [10]

6 male varsity track athletes

Cycling to exhaustion at 125% of peak aerobic work

0.3 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Brien et al. 1989 [11]

6 well-trained oarsmen

4-min submaximal rowing and 2-min maximum rowing

0.3 g/kg

180 to 60 min before exercise

Work: ↔

Power: ↔

Brisola et al. 2015 [12]

15 moderately active males

2 × supramaximal running at 110% of VO2max

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

Cameron et al. 2010 [13]

25 male rugby players

Rugby-specific repeated-sprint test

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Mean sprint time: ↔

Fastest 40-m sprint time: ↔

Mean change in repeated-sprint ability: ↔

Campos et al. 2012 [14]

3 female and 7 male swimmers

6 × 100-m swimming (6-min of rest)

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Stroke length: ↔

Stroke rate: ↔

Stroke index: ↔

Swimming time: ↔

Carr et al. 2012 [15]

3 female and 4 male well-trained rowers

2000-m rowing

Acute protocol: 0.3 g/kg

Multiple-day protocol: 0.5 g/kg

Acute protocol: 120 min before exercise

Multiple-day protocol: for 3 days before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Carr et al. 2013 [16]

12 resistance-trained men

4 sets of squat and leg press,

and 5 sets of knee extensions using 10-12RM or 50% of 1RM (60-s to 90-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

80 to 50 min before exercise

Number of repetitions: ↑

Cholewa et al. 2015 [17]

7 division III collegiate male soccer players

Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Distance covered: ↔

Time to fatigue: ↔

Coombes et al. 1993 [18]

9 male physical education students

Isokinetic knee extension and flexion

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Peak torque: ↑

Total work: ↑

Costill et al. 1984 [19]

1 female and 10 males

4 × 1-min cycling bout (1-min rest), 5th sprint was to exhaustion

0.2 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Dalle et al. 2019 [20]

12 physically active males

4 × 2-min cycling (each bout was separated by a 3-h rest interval)

0.4 g/kg

Over a 9 h period before exercise

Mean power: ↑ in bout 3

Dalle et al. 2021 [21]

11 male cyclists

90-s sprint at the end of 3-h simulated cycling race

0.3 g/kg

From 120 min before exercise until the end of the 3 h simulated cycling race

Mean power: ↑

Deb et al. 2017 [22]

11 male trained cyclists

3-min all-out cycling performed in normoxia and hypoxia

0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Curvature constant: ↑ in normoxia and hypoxia

Critical power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Total work: ↑ in normoxia and hypoxia

Deb et al. 2018 [23]

11 recreationally active males

Repeated 60-s cycling to exhaustion (30-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Exercise tolerance: ↑

Work done: ↑

Delextrat et al. 2018 [24]

15 female basketball players

Basketball Exercise Simulated Test

0.3 g/kg

For 4 days before exercise

Mean sprint time: ↓

Mean circuit time: ↓

Mean jump height: ↑

Ideal sprint time: ↓

Total sprint time: ↓

Sprint performance decrement: ↓

Jump height decrement: ↔

Dixon et al. 2017 [25]

8 recreationally active males

Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test 1

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Douroudos et al. 2006 [26]

24 men (8 in each group)

Wingate test

0.3 or 0.5 g/kg

For 5 days before exercise

Mean power: ↑ only with 0.5 g/kg

Driller et al. 2012 [27]

8 male cyclists

4-min cycling

Acute protocol: 0.3 g/kg

Multiple-day protocol: 0.4 g/kg

Acute protocol: 90 to 30 min before exercise

Multiple-day protocol: for 3 days before exercise

Absolute mean power: ↑ with both protocols

Relative mean power: ↑ only with the acute protocol

Driller et al. 2012 [28]

8 well-trained male cyclists

2-min cycling

0.3 g/kg

120 to 60 min before exercise

Mean power: ↑

Peak power: ↔

Driller et al. 2013 [29]

12 Australian representative rowers

2000-m rowing

0.3 g/kg

90 min before every exercise session (4 weeks, 2 days per week)

Rowing time: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Power at 4 mmol/L of lactate: ↔

Duncan et al. 2014 [30]

8 resistance-trained men

3 sets of squat and bench press at 80% of 1RM (3-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Number of repetitions in the squat: ↑

Number of repetitions in the bench press: ↔

Durkalec-Michalski et al. 2018 [31]

9 female and 12 male CrossFit-trained participants

3 × Fight Gone Bad CrossFit round and incremental cycling test

0.037.5 to 0.150 g/kg

For 10 days before exercise

Number of repetitions: ↑

Time to exhaustion: ↔

Maximum workload: ↔

Workload at ventilatory threshold: ↑

Time to ventilatory threshold: ↑

Durkalec-Michalski et al. 2018 [32]

18 female and 31 male wrestlers

2 × Wingate test with a dummy throw test during the rest interval

0.025 to 0.150 g/kg

For 10 days before exercise

Peak power: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Minimum power: ↔

Time-to-peak power: ↓

Number of throws: ↔

Durkalec-Michalski et al. 2020 [33]

24 male field hockey players

2 × Wingate test with a discipline-specific field performance test during the rest interval

Acute protocol: 0.2 g/kg

Multiple-day protocol: 0.05 to 0.2 g/kg

Acute protocol: 120 min before exercise

Multiple-day protocol: for 8 days before exercise

Work: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 only with multiple-day protocol

Mean power: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 only with multiple-day protocol

Peak power: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 only with multiple-day protocol

Time-to-peak power: ↔

Power carry threshold at 97% of peak power: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 only with multiple-day protocol

Average power at power carry threshold: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 only with multiple-day protocol

Time needed to complete the discipline-specific performance test: ↓ with both protocols

Durkalec-Michalski et al. 2020 [34]

18 female and 33 male wrestlers

2 × Wingate test with a dummy throw test during the rest interval

0.025 to 0.150 mg/kg

For 10 days before exercise

Peak power: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Power drop: ↔

Power in the middle section of the Wingate test: ↑

Number of throws: ↑ only in males

Edge et al. 2006 [35]

16 recreationally active women

Constant-load exercise test

0.4 g/kg

90 to 30 min before every exercise session (8 weeks, 3 days per week)

Time to fatigue: significantly greater improvements in the group supplementing with sodium bicarbonate

Egger et al. 2014 [36]

21 well-trained cyclists

Stepwise incremental exercise

tests and 30-min at 95% of the individual anaerobic threshold followed by 110% at individual anaerobic threshold

until exhaustion

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Maximal workload: ↔

Workload at 110% of individual anaerobic threshold: ↔

Time to fatigue: ↑

Farney et al. 2020 [37]

11 recreationally trained men

Isometric mid-thigh pull after an exercise session consisting of barbell thrusters, squat jumps, lunge jumps, and

forward jumps

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Peak force: ↔

Rate of force development: ↔

Ferreira et al. 2019 [38]

21 male cyclists

Cycling to exhaustion

0.1 or 0.3 g/kg

30 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑ only with 0.3 g/kg

Freis et al. 2017 [39]

18 trained runners

Graded exercise test and 30-min at 95% of the individual anaerobic threshold followed by 110% at individual anaerobic threshold

until exhaustion

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

Maximum running speed: ↑

Froio De Araujo Dias et al. 2015 [40]

15 physically active males

Cycling capacity test at 110% of maximum power output

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise (same protocol was repeated 4 times)

Total work: ↑ only in 1 out of the 4 testing sessions

Gaitanos et al. 1991 [41]

7 males

10 × 6-s all-out running sprints (30-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

150 min before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Mean running speed: ↔

Peak running speed: ↔

Gao et al. 1988 [42]

10 well-trained male swimmers

5 × 91.4 m swimming (2-min rest)

0.29 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Swimming velocity: ↑ in swimming bouts 4 and 5

George et al. 1988 [43]

7 males involved in competitive sports

Continuous running incremental test

0.2 g/kg

150 to 90 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Goldfinch et al. 1988 [44]

6 trained male athletes

400-m running

0.4 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Running time: ↓

Gough et al. 2017 [45]

9 active males

2 × cycling to exhaustion at peak mean minute power (90-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

30 min after the first cycling test

Time to fatigue: ↑

Gough et al. 2017 [46]

11 trained male cyclists

4-km cycling time trial

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing (both protocols were repeated twice)

Cycling time: ↓ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Gough et al. 2018 [47]

10 male trained cyclists

2 × 4-km cycling time trial (40-min rest)

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Cycling time: ↓ in bout 1 and 2 only with 0.3 g/kg

Gough et al. 2018 [48]

11 trained male cyclists

4-km cycling time trial

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Cycling time: ↓ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Gough et al. 2019 [49]

7 elite male professional boxers

Boxing specific high-intensity interval running protocol, followed

by 2 × high-intensity running to volitional exhaustion (75-min rest) and boxing specific

punch combination protocol

0.3 g/kg

65 min after the first high-intensity run to exhaustion

Time to fatigue: ↑

Gough et al. 2019 [50]

1 female and 13 male club level

cyclists

4-km cycling time trial in hypoxia

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Cycling time: ↓ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Gurton et al. 2020 [51]

12 recreationally active males

3 × 60-s cycling at 90%, 95%, and 100% of maximal aerobic power (90-s rest), followed by cycling to exhaustion at 105% of maximal aerobic power

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Cycling time: ↓ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Mean power: ↑ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Mean speed: ↔

Higgins et al. 2013 [52]

10 non-cycling trained males

Cycling to exhaustion at 100%, 110% and 120% peak mean minute power

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue at 100%: ↑

Time to fatigue at 110%: ↔

Time to fatigue at 120%: ↔

Hilton et al. 2020 [53]

11 trained male cyclists

4-km cycling time trial

0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing (enteric-coated or gelatin capsules)

Cycling time: ↓ with enteric-coated and gelatin capsules

Mean power: ↑ only with gelatin capsules

Hobson et al. 2014 [54]

20 male rowers

2000-m rowing

0.3 g/kg

240 to 120 min before exercise

Rowing time: ↓

Horswill et al. 1988 [55]

9 endurance-trained cyclists

2-min cycling sprints

0.1, 0.15, or 0.2 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Total work: ↔

Inbar et al. 1983 [56]

13 male physical education students

Wingate test

10 g

180 min before exercise

Mean power: ↑

Peak power: ↔

Iwaoka et al. 1989 [57]

6 male physical education students

Cycling to exhaustion at 95% VO2max

0.2 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Jones et al. 1977 [58]

5 males

Cycling at 95% of peak power output

0.3 g/kg

180 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Joyce et al. 2012 [59]

8 highly trained male swimmers

200-m swimming (repeated on consecutive days)

Acute protocol: 0.3 g/kg

Multiple-day protocol: 0.3 g/kg

Acute protocol: 120 to 90 min before exercise

Multiple-day protocol: for 3 days before exercise

Swimming time: ↔

Katz et al. 1984 [60]

8 males

Cycling to exhaustion at 125% of VO2max

0.2 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

Kowalchuk et al. 1984 [61]

6 males

Continuous incremental cycling test

0.3 g/kg

180 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Kozak-Collins et al. 1994 [62]

7 female cyclists

Repeated cycling sprints at 95% of VO2max (1-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

120 to 105 min before exercise

Number of sprints: ↔

Krustrup et al. 2015 [63]

13 trained males

Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2

0.4 g/kg

90 to 50 min before exercise

Distance covered: ↑

Kumstát et al. 2018 [64]

6 nationally ranked male swimmers

400-m swimming

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Swimming time: ↔

Lavender et al. 1989 [65]

8 females and 15 males

10 × 10-s cycle sprints (50-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

120 to 60 min before exercise

Mean power: ↑ in 8 out of 10 sprints

Peak power: ↑ in 2 out of 10 sprints

Limmer et al. 2020 [66]

2 female and 8 male recreationally active participants

Portable tethered sprint running

0.3 g/kg

For 7 days before exercise

Peak force: ↔

Mean force: ↔

Lindh et al. 2008 [67]

9 male elite-standard swimmers

200-m swimming

0.3 g/kg

90 to 60 min before exercise

Swimming time: ↓

Lopes-Silva et al. 2018 [68]

9 male taekwondo black belt athletes

3 × 2-min taekwondo combat (1-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Total attack time: ↑

Attack time: ↔

Stepping time: ↔

Pause time: ↔

Stepping time sum: ↔

Pause time sum: ↔

Attack number: ↔

Stepping number: ↔

Pause number: ↔

Marriot et al. 2015 [69]

12 male team-sport athletes

Arm-cranking exercise followed by Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2

0.3 g/kg

90 to 60 min before exercise

Distance covered: ↑

Marx et al. 2002 [70]

10 males

90-s maximal cycle test

0.3 g/kg

65 to 20 min before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Materko et al. 2008 [71]

11 resistance-trained men

Bench press and pull press 10RM

0.3 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Weight lifted: ↔

Matsuura et al. 2007 [72]

8 male undergraduate students

10 × 10-s cycle sprints (30-s or 360-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

180 to 120 min before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Maughan et al. 1986 [73]

10 males

Isometric knee extension

0.3 g/kg

180 min before exercise

MVC: ↔

Time to maintain 20% of MVC: ↑

Time to maintain 50% of MVC: ↔

Time to maintain 80% of MVC: ↔

McCartney et al. 1983 [74]

6 males

Constant-velocity cycling for 30 s

0.3 g/kg

180 min before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Total work: ↔

Rate of mean power decline: ↔

McKenzie et al. 1986 [75]

6 males athletes

5 × 1-min cycling (1-min rest), 6th sprint was to exhaustion

0.15 or 0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑ with 0.15 or 0.3 g/kg

McNaughton et al. 1991 [76]

8 trained male cyclists

60-s cycling

0.4 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Total work: ↑

Peak power: ↑

McNaughton 1992 [77]

9 males

60-s cycling

0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, or 0.5 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Total work: ↑ with doses from 0.2 to 0.5 g/kg

Peak power: ↑ with doses from 0.3 to 0.5 g/kg

McNaughton 1992 [78]

32 males (8 in each group)

10-s, 30-s, 120-s, or 240-s cycling

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Total work 10-s cycling: ↔

Total work 30-s cycling: ↔

Total work 120-s cycling: ↑

Total work 240-s cycling: ↑

Peak power 10-s cycling: ↔

Peak power 30-s cycling: ↔

Peak power 120-s cycling: ↑

Peak power 240-s cycling: ↑

McNaughton et al. 1997 [79]

10 moderately trained females

60-s cycling

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Total work: ↑

Peak power: ↑

McNaughton et al. 1999 [80]

10 well-trained men

1-h cycling

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Mean power: ↑

Peak power: ↔

Total work: ↑

McNaughton et al. 1999 [81]

7 participants

60-s cycling

0.5 g/kg

For 5 days before exercise

Peak power: ↑

Total work: ↑

McNaughton et al. 2000 [82]

2 females and 6 males

3 × Wingate test (30-s rest)

0.5 g/kg

For 5 days before exercise

Peak power: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 and 2

Total work: ↑ in Wingate bout 1 and 2

McNaughton et al. 2001 [83]

8 males

90-s cycling on three consecutive days

Acute protocol: 0.5 g/kg

Multiple-day protocol: 0.5 g/kg

Acute protocol: 90 min before exercise

Multiple-day protocol: for 5 days before exercise

Total work day 1: ↑ with both protocols

Total work day 2: ↑ only with multiple-day protocol

Total work day 3: ↑ only with multiple-day protocol

Miller et al. 2016 [84]

11 male active team and individual sport athletes

10 × 6-s sprints (60-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

According to individualized ingestion timing

Total work: ↑

Peak power: ↔

Mündel 2018 [85]

10 male team sport athletes

2 × Wingate test (5-min rest)

0.5 g/kg

Ingested at 4 h intervals starting at 9 h before exercise

Total work: ↑ in Wingate bout 2

Peak power: ↔

Mueller et al. 2013 [86]

8 trained male cyclists and triathletes

Cycling time to exhaustion at critical power

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise (same protocol was repeated 5 times)

Time to fatigue: ↑ in all 5 testing sessions

Northgraves et al. 2014 [87]

7 recreationally active men

40-km cycling time trial

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Cycling time: ↔

Oliveira et al. 2017 [88]

18 male rugby, judo, and jiu-jitsu athletes

4 × modified upper body Wingate test (3-min rest)

0.5 g/kg

For 5 days before exercise

Total work (all bout): ↑

Total work Wingate bout 1: ↔

Total work Wingate bout 2: ↔

Total work Wingate bout 3: ↑

Total work Wingate bout 4: ↑

Parry-Billings et al. 1986 [89]

6 males

3 × Wingate test (6-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

150 min before exercise

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Peart et al. 2011 [90]

7 physically active males

4-min cycling

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Total work: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: ↔

Peinado et al. 2018 [91]

12 elite male BMX cyclists

3 × BMX Olympic track races (15-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Event time: ↔

Time to peak velocity: ↔

Peak velocity: ↔

Pierce et al. 1992 [92]

7 male varsity swimmers

91.4-m and 182.8-m swimming

0.2 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Swimming time: ↔

Potteiger et al. 1996 [93]

7 male runners

30-min treadmill running at the lactate threshold followed by running to exhaustion at 110% of lactate threshold

0.3 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Running time: ↔

Price et al. 2003 [94]

8 aerobically trained men

10 × 14-s cycle sprints (166-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Peak power: sodium bicarbonate ingestion attenuated the decline in peak power

Price et al. 2010 [95]

8 aerobically trained men

20 × 24-s sprints (36 to 60-s rest) followed by running to exhaustion at velocity during

120% of VO2max

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Running time: ↔

Running distance: ↔

Raymer et al. 2004 [96]

6 males

Wrist flexion

to fatigue

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Robertson et al. 1987 [97]

10 male university students

Ergometer tasks for upper-body, lower-body, or combined upper and lower-body

0.3 g/kg

120 to 105 min before exercise

Total work: ↑ in all exercise tests

Saunders et al. 2014 [98]

21 recreationally active males

Cycling capacity test at 110% of maximum power output

0.3 g/kg

240 to 120 min before exercise

Total work: ↑ only when considering data among the participants that did not experience side-effects

Schauf et al. 1996 [99]

12 moderately trained females

Repeated 1-min cycle at 110% VO2peak to exhaustion (9-min rest)

0.1 g/kg or 0.2 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑ only with 0.2 g/kg

Siegler et al. 2010 [100]

10 amateur boxers

4 × 3-min boxing rounds (1-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Punch efficacy: ↑

Siegler et al. 2010 [101]

9 active males

3 × 30-s runs (3-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

75 to 60 min before exercise

Average running speed: ↑ in bout 3

Peak running speed: ↔

Siegler et al. 2010 [102]

8 female and 6 male swimmers

8 × 25-m swimming (5-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

150 min before exercise

Swimming time: ↓

Siegler et al. 2012 [103]

8 recreationally active males

10 × 10-s sprints (50-s rest)

0.3 g/kg

60, 120, or 180 min before exercise

Average speed: ↔

Average power: ↔

Total distance: ↔

Siegler et al. 2013 [104]

2 female and 8 male cyclists

30-s sprints at 120% peak power output until exhaustion (30-s rest) and isometric knee extension

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

MVC: ↔

Rate of force development: ↑

Siegler et al. 2015 [105]

8 recreationally active males

Submaximal calf contractions

at 55 % of MVC, and MVC during the rest interval

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↔

MVC: ↔

Siegler et al. 2015 [106]

11 recreationally active men

Knee extension with and without cuffs

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise

MVC: ↔

Rate of torque development: ↑

Siegler et al. 2016 [107]

10 resistance-trained men

Plantar flexion and elbow extension

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise

MVC: ↔

Rate of torque development: ↔

Siegler et al. 2018 [108]

6 male and 2 female resistance-trained participants

Knee extension

0.3 g/kg

90 to 30 min before exercise (acute protocol) and before every exercise session (10 weeks, 2 days per week)

Number of repetitions: ↔

MVC: ↔

1RM: ↔

Rate of torque production: ↑

Sostaric et al. 2006 [109]

4 untrained females and 5 untrained males

Finger flexion

0.3 g/kg

180 to 120 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Mean force: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Stephens et al. 2002 [110]

7 endurance-trained men

30-min of cycling

exercise followed by ~30-min of cycling at ~80% of VO2peak

0.3 g/kg

120 to 90 min before exercise

Cycling time: ↔

Sutton et al. 1981 [111]

5 males

Cycling at 95% of peak power output

0.3 g/kg

180 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Tan et al. 2010 [112]

12 elite players from the Australian National Women’s Water Polo Squad

56 × 10-m maximal-sprint swimming (17-s to 5-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Mean sprint time: ↔

Tanaka et al. 2018 [113]

6 male students

Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 2

0.2 g/kg

60 to 20 min before exercise

Distance covered: ↔

Van Montfoort et al. 2004 [114]

15 competitive male endurance runners

Running to exhaustion

0.3 g/kg

180 to 90 min before exercise

Time to fatigue: ↑

Vanhatalo et al. 2010 [115]

8 habitually active males

3-min all-out cycling

0.3 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Total work: ↔

Work done above critical power: ↔

Verbitsky et al. 1997 [116]

6 males

Cycling at 117% of VO2max followed by functional electrical

stimulation

0.4 g/kg

60 min before exercise

Normalized torque: ↑

Wang et al. 2019 [117]

20 college-age males

Wingate test

0.2 g/kg

90 to 60 min before every exercise session (6 weeks, 3 days per week)

Mean power: ↔

Peak power: significantly greater improvements in the group supplementing with sodium bicarbonate

Webster et al. 1993 [118]

6 resistance-trained men

5 sets of leg press at 70% of 1RM (90-s rest), 5th set was to failure

0.3 g/kg

105 min before exercise

Number of repetitions: ↔

Wilkes et al. 1983 [119]

6 male varsity track athletes

800-m running

0.3 g/kg

120 min before exercise

Running time: ↓

Wu et al. 2010 [120]

9 male college tennis players

2 × Loughborough Tennis Skill Tests and stimulated tennis match

0.3 g/kg

70 min before the first Loughborough Tennis Skill Tests and 0.1 g/kg ingested immediately before the second Loughborough Tennis Skill Tests

Service consistency: ↑

Ground stroke forehand: ↑

Accuracy of service: ↔

Ground stroke total: ↔

Ground stroke backhand: ↔

Yong et al. 2018 [121]

8 male swimmers

200-m swimming

0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Swimming time: ↓ with 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg

Zabala et al. 2008 [122]

9 elite male BMX riders

3 × Wingate test (30-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Peak power: ↔

Time to peak power: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Zabala et al. 2011 [123]

10 elite male BMX riders

3 × Wingate test (15-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Peak power: ↔

Time to peak power: ↔

Mean power: ↔

Zajac et al. 2009 [124]

8 youth male swimmers

4 × 50-m swimming (1-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Swimming speed: ↑ in bout 1

Swimming time: ↓

Zinner et al. 2011 [125]

11 aerobically well-trained men

4 × Wingate test (5-min rest)

0.3 g/kg

90 min before exercise

Mean power: ↑ in Wingate bouts 3 and 4

Peak power: ↔

  1. BMX: bicycle motocross; MVC: maximal voluntary contraction; RM: repetition maximum; SJFT: Special Judo Fitness Test; VO2max: maximal oxygen uptake; VO2peak: peak oxygen uptake; ↑: significant increase; ↓: significant decrease; ↔: no significant difference